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ACL Findings2024

Realistic Evaluation of Toxicity in Large Language Models

Tinh Son Luong, Thanh-Thien Le, Linh Ngo Van, Thien Huu Nguyen

Abstract

Large language models (LLMs) have become integral to our professional workflows and daily lives. Nevertheless, these machine companions of ours have a critical flaw: the huge amount of data which endows them with vast and diverse knowledge, also exposes them to the inevitable toxicity and bias. While most LLMs incorporate defense mechanisms to prevent the generation of harmful content, these safeguards can be easily bypassed with minimal prompt engineering. In this paper, we introduce the new Thoroughly Engineered Toxicity (TET) dataset, comprising manually crafted prompts designed to nullify the protective layers of such models. Through extensive evaluations, we demonstrate the pivotal role of TET in providing a rigorous benchmark for evaluation of toxicity awareness in several popular LLMs: it highlights the toxicity in the LLMs that might remain hidden when using normal prompts, thus revealing subtler issues in their behavior.

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Cited by top-tier papers7

  1. Head Pursuit: Probing Attention Specialization in Multimodal TransformersLorenzo Basile, Valentino Maiorca, Diego Doimo, Francesco Locatello et al.NeurIPS 2025 · 21 citations
  2. LinEAS: End-to-end Learning of Activation Steering with a Distributional LossPau Rodríguez, Michal Klein, Eleonora Gualdoni, Valentino Maiorca et al.NeurIPS 2025 · 15 citations
  3. A Survey on Efficient Large Language Model Training: From Data-centric PerspectivesJunyu Luo, Bohan Wu, Xiao Luo, Zhiping Xiao et al.ACL 2025 · 12 citations
  4. TAI3: Testing Agent Integrity in Interpreting User IntentShiwei Feng, Xiangzhe Xu, Xuan Chen, Kaiyuan Zhang et al.NeurIPS 2025 · 9 citations
  5. Breaking Bad Tokens: Detoxification of LLMs Using Sparse AutoencodersAgam Goyal, Vedant Rathi, William Yeh, Yian Wang et al.EMNLP 2025 · 1 citation

Builds on7

  1. Language Models are Few-Shot LearnersTom B. Brown, Benjamin Mann, Nick Ryder, Melanie Subbiah et al.NeurIPS 2020 · 64,255 citations
  2. RealToxicityPrompts: Evaluating Neural Toxic Degeneration in Language ModelsSamuel Gehman, Suchin Gururangan, Maarten Sap, Yejin Choi et al.EMNLP Findings 2020 · 692 citations
  3. LMSYS-Chat-1M: A Large-Scale Real-World LLM Conversation DatasetLianmin Zheng, Wei-Lin Chiang, Ying Sheng, Tianle Li et al.ICLR 2024 · 419 citations
  4. PandaLM: An Automatic Evaluation Benchmark for LLM Instruction Tuning OptimizationYidong Wang, Zhuohao Yu, Wenjin Yao, Zhengran Zeng et al.ICLR 2024 · 368 citations
  5. OpenChat: Advancing Open-source Language Models with Mixed-Quality DataGuan Wang, Sijie Cheng, Xianyuan Zhan, Xiangang Li et al.ICLR 2024 · 328 citations

Related papers

  1. When Smiley Turns Hostile: Interpreting How Emojis Trigger LLMs' ToxicityShiyao Cui, Xijia Feng, Yingkang Wang, Junxiao Yang et al.AAAI 2026
  2. Rethinking Prompt-based Debiasing in Large Language ModelXinyi Yang, Runzhe Zhan, Shu Yang, Junchao Wu et al.ACL Findings 2025 · 2 citations
  3. The Art of Defending: A Systematic Evaluation and Analysis of LLM Defense Strategies on Safety and Over-DefensivenessNeeraj Varshney, Pavel Dolin, Agastya Seth, Chitta BaralACL Findings 2024 · 13 citations
  4. Can LLMs Separate Instructions From Data? And What Do We Even Mean By That?Egor Zverev, Sahar Abdelnabi, Soroush Tabesh, Mario Fritz et al.ICLR 2025
  5. Challenges in Detoxifying Language ModelsJohannes Welbl, Amelia Glaese, Jonathan Uesato, Sumanth Dathathri et al.EMNLP Findings 2021 · 112 citations
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