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ACL Findings2023

Tokenization with Factorized Subword Encoding

David Samuel, Lilja Øvrelid

Abstract

In recent years, language models have become increasingly larger and more complex. However, the input representations for these models continue to rely on simple and greedy subword tokenization methods. In this paper, we propose a novel tokenization method that factorizes subwords onto discrete triplets using a VQ-VAE model. The effectiveness of the proposed tokenization method, referred to as the FACTORIZER, is evaluated on language modeling and morpho-syntactic tasks for 7 diverse languages. Results indicate that this method is more appropriate and robust for morphological tasks than the commonly used byte-pair encoding (BPE) tokenization algorithm.

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Cited by top-tier papers1

  1. Zero-Shot Generalization of GNNs over Distinct Attribute DomainsYangyi Shen, Jincheng Zhou, Beatrice Bevilacqua, Joshua Robinson et al.ICML 2025

Builds on6

  1. Deberta: decoding-Enhanced Bert with Disentangled AttentionPengcheng He, Xiaodong Liu, Jianfeng Gao, Weizhu ChenICLR 2021 · 3,729 citations
  2. ASAM: Adaptive Sharpness-Aware Minimization for Scale-Invariant Learning of Deep Neural NetworksJungmin Kwon, Jeongseop Kim, Hyunseo Park, In Kwon ChoiICML 2021 · 385 citations
  3. Byte Pair Encoding is Suboptimal for Language Model PretrainingKaj Bostrom, Greg DurrettEMNLP Findings 2020 · 180 citations
  4. Hierarchical Quantized AutoencodersWill Williams, Sam Ringer, Tom Ash, David MacLeod et al.NeurIPS 2020 · 90 citations
  5. BPE-Dropout: Simple and Effective Subword RegularizationIvan Provilkov, Dmitrii Emelianenko, Elena VoitaACL 2020 · 17 citations

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  1. Exploring morphology-aware tokenization: A case study on Spanish language modelingAlba Táboas García, Piotr Przybyla, Leo WannerEMNLP 2025 · 1 citation
  2. MorphBPE: Morphology-Aware Tokenization for Efficient LLM TrainingEhsaneddin Asgari, Yassine El Kheir, MohammadAli SadraeiJavaheri, Ali NazariACL Findings 2026
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  4. Effects of sub-word segmentation on performance of transformer language modelsJue Hou, Anisia Katinskaia, Anh-Duc Vu, Roman YangarberEMNLP 2023 · 2 citations
  5. MUTANT: A Recipe for Multilingual Tokenizer DesignSouvik Rana, Ashish Kulkarni, Arul Menezes, Chandra Khatri et al.ACL 2026 · 2 citations
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