Maximum Likelihood Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning (RL) is the method of choice for training models in setups where the objective function can only be evaluated by sampling from the model. Our key observation is that when the feedback is terminal and binary, models implicitly induce a likelihood over correct rollouts. Maximum likelihood would be the natural framework in such settings, but RL is used instead as a workaround to the non-differentiability. We prove that the standard, expected-reward RL formulation is only a first-order approximation of the likelihood. To remedy this mismatch, we introduce Maximum Likelihood Reinforcement Learning (MaxRL), a compute-indexed family of sample-based objectives that interpolate between expected-reward RL and maximum likelihood as sampling compute is scaled. The resulting objective is a one-line change to standard RL implementations. MaxRL Pareto-dominates existing methods in all tested models and tasks, achieves up to 20× gains in test-time scaling efficiency over GRPO, and scales more favorably with additional training data and compute. 1