The Digital Democracy Paradox: When Usability and Literacy Barriers Undermine Inclusive E-Government

Bangladesh’s expansion of online public services has improved access on paper, yet literacy barriers, fragile infrastructure, and inconsistent design continue to exclude many citizens. Through a convergent mixed-methods study, 293 survey responses, 28 administrator and mediator interviews, and heuristic evaluation, we show how digital literacy strongly predicts task success and autonomy, while qualitative accounts reveal how irreversibility, payment failures, and mistrust drive users toward informal mediators. These dynamics produce a Digital Democracy Paradox: systems justified as efficient and publicly framed as accessible can, in practice, deepen exclusion. We contribute: (1) the Literacy-Adaptive Usability Framework (LAUF), which treats literacy as a dynamic design parameter and integrates adaptation, mediation, and infrastructural resilience; (2) Civix UI, a lightweight illustrative prototype demonstrating bilingual, low-bandwidth, literacy-sensitive components; and (3) a mediator-inclusive design model that formalizes assisted use through accountable, gender-inclusive support. Together, these offer a pathway toward more equitable and trustworthy digital public services.