Generalization vs Specialization under Concept Shift

Machine learning models are often brittle under distribution shift, i.e., when data distributions at test time differ from those during training. Understanding this failure mode is central to identifying and mitigating safety risks of mass adoption of machine learning. Here we analyze ridge regression under concept shift-a form of distribution shift in which the input-label relationship changes at test time. We derive an exact expression for prediction risk in the thermodynamic limit. Our results reveal nontrivial effects of concept shift on generalization performance, including a phase transition between weak and strong concept shift regimes and nonmonotonic data dependence of test performance even when double descent is absent. Our theoretical results are in good agreement with experiments based on transformers pretrained to solve linear regression; under concept shift, too long context length can be detrimental to generalization performance of next token prediction. Finally, experiments on MNIST and FashionMNIST further validate our theoretical predictions, suggesting these phenomena represent a fundamental aspect of learning under distribution shift.

• DJS and VN contributed to this work equally. 1 Concept shift or concept drift is sometimes defined to be equivalent to distribution shift [12]. Here, we adopt a narrower definition in which concept shift describes only the change in the input-label relationship [13,14].

39th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2025).