HeatFlow: A Thermal-Tactile Display for Dynamic 2D Thermal Movements

We introduce HeatFlow, a thermal display capable of generating dynamic thermal movements on a 2D surface by integrating thermal and tactile sensations. Leveraging a perception-driven approach, we combine vibration-induced thermal referral and apparent tactile motion to create the illusion of moving thermal flows. The system features a 2D array of nine tactile actuators paired with a single nearby thermal actuator. To validate our approach, we conducted three user studies. The first study determined the optimal parameters for perceivable 2D thermal flows by examining different array sizes and motion speeds under varying temperature conditions. The second study focused on optimizing our algorithm to produce smooth and continuous curved thermal flows. Comparative evaluations against two prior tactile motion techniques demonstrated that our algorithm outperforms existing methods in generating realistic thermal motion. Finally, we integrated HeatFlow into virtual reality (VR) environments, assessing its feasibility in six interactive scenarios across three body sites—the arm, palm, and face. Our findings highlight the potential of HeatFlow to enhance immersive VR experiences by providing realistic thermal feedback across multiple body locations. Additionally, we present HeatFlow as a design tool—an application that enables users to create custom thermal flows by adjusting key parameters such as motion speed, intensity, and temperature. This work lays the foundation for more advanced thermal interfaces in interactive systems.